The Plant List includes 302 scientific plant names of species rank for the genus Thunbergia.Of these 31 are accepted species names. Flowers trumpet-shaped, corolla white to about 7 cm long. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html, PROTA, 2014. Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. This species has recently been recorded at several locations in the coastal districts of eastern Queensland. T. fragrans is an herbaceous vine, twining, 2-3 m in length. It is reported to be restricted to zone 10 and south. © Copyright 2020 CAB International. In: Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (spermatophytes only). Lo) H.P. Traditional uses of these five species as medicinal, ornamental, vegetable, cultural significance and as other uses have also been highlighted in the enumeration section of the paper. It has become an exotic weed in many tropical countries. Each flower is subtended by two leafy bracts (13-15 mm long) that are either egg-shaped in outline (i.e. Naturalised overseas in south-eastern USA (i.e. A potential weed of closed forests, forest margins, watercourses (i.e. By 1900, I. In: Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, Honiara, Solomon Islands: ii + 203 pp. This species reproduces by seeds and also vegetatively via fragments of stems and roots. 1999). T. fragrans dies to the ground for the winter but returns every summer in Gainesville FL z9a, and produces flowers right up until frost. Wagner WI, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Flowering plants of Jamaica. Brit. Flora of China. Space JC; Flynn T, 2002. Kew Bulletin, 55:513-589. How Thunbergia Grandiflora is effective for various diseases is listed in repertory format. For documenting flora of India that is being discussed on efloraofindia google e-group along with supplementing the working of the group. T. fragrans grows best on fertile soils with good drainage and pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8 (PROTA, 2014). PIER, 2014. Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam) and China. Roxburghia rostrata Russell Roxburghia rostrata Russell ex Nees Homonyms Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Special qualities: Tolerates drought no Tolerates high humidity no Tolerates seaside conditions no Insect resistant no Disease resistant no Deer resistant no Best uses Symbiosis Attracts butterflies no Attracts hummingbirds no Autumn foliage no Colorful berries no Desirable qualities Other interest Other interest color Other interest period Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 51:483 pp. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. Borg AJ; McDade LA; Schönenberger J, 2008. India 4: 391. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/pohreports/thunbergia_fragrans.pdf, Stevens PF, 2012. White thunbergia is not a prohibited or restricted invasive plant under the Biosecurity Act 2014, however everyone has a general biosecurity obligation (GBO) to take reasonable and practical steps to minimise the risks associated with invasive plants and animals under their control. hainanensis (C.Y. Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Dispersal of this species is usually facilitated by it being grown in gardens (i.e. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. 76 pp. Daniel TF, 2005. 599 pp. In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 107 1-3348. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Species in the genus Thunbergia have bisexual, zygomorphic, axillary, and usually solitary flowers (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of the Solomon Islands. In Hawaii, T. fragrans is a common weed in moist disturbed lowland areas (Wagner et al., 1999). The most rarely used plants are medicinal plants such as Sauropus amoebiflorus Airy Shaw, Thunbergia fragrans Roxb., Bridelia retusa Spreng., and Wendlandia tinctoria DC. The subfamily Thunbergioideae is characterized by a predominantly twining habit, enlarged bracteoles, and a reduced calyx. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label. characteristic features. Thunbergia fragrans. Fragrant thunbergia (Thunbergia fragrans) is widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions for its attractive white flowers. Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba. Florida), the Caribbean (e.g. T. fragrans is relatively similar to Thunbergia grandiflora, Thunbergia laurifolia and Thunbergia alata. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list, Josekutty PC; Wakuk EE; Joseph MJ, 2002. Acanthaceae or Crossandra or Thunbergia family Light: Sun growing, Semi shade Water: Normal, Can tolerate more Primarily grown for: Flowers Flowering season: January, February, March Flower or Inflorescence color: Various colored flowers available viz., Yellow, Orange, Red Foliage color: Green Plant Height or length: to ensure you have the latest version of this fact sheet. Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission. by Breedlove, D. E.]. National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2:290. Mito T; Uesugi T, 2004. Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. The flowers are about 2 cm wide and have a subtle, cream-colored center instead of the black-eyed one of the Thunbergia alata. Adams CD, 1972. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). by Breedlove DE]. T. fragrans is native to India, Southeastern Asia and Malesia (Daniel, 2010; USDA-ARS, 2014). Common name(s) White Thunbergia, Fragrant Thunbergia (CLASS 1) Flower colour; life form. hastate) bases. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. The alien flowering plants of Mexico. Distinguishing features. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press. along with discussion & documentation of Indian Flora. PIER, 2014. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, revised edition. fragrans, Thunbergia grandiflora Roxb., Thunbergia hossei Clarke, Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl., Thunbergia similis Craib, Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. McDade LA; Masta SE; Moody ML; Waters E, 2000. Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2, Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Its pure white flowers distinguish it, however. The slender, green or reddish coloured stems are square in cross-section (i.e. It grows and flowers well in part shade in any reasonably moist soil. The PLANTS Database. Compendium record. Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. The alien flowering plants of Mexico. The stems can be 1 - 5 metres long, they scramble over the ground or twine into the surrounding vegetation for support It is able to grow beneath closed forests (i.e., shaded areas) as well as in areas with full-sunlight exposure (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PROTA, 2014). Plants of Hawaii. Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96. In: Technical paper No. Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm, Randall RP, 2012. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Catalog of Honduran Acanthaceae with taxonomic and phytogeographic notes. ACANTHACEAE whitelady. Seeds and plant fragments can be spread in dumped garden waste, and by water, soil movement, garden tools, and vehicles (Starr et al., 2003; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). In the case of T. fragrans, pollinators are unknown, but based on floral traits the species could be considered entomophilous (Starr et al., 2003). 818 pp. General Information Black-eyed Susan is a climbing, perennial plant producing one or more annual stems from a woody rootstock. In Australia, the only herbicide active registered for the control of Thunbergia species is imazapyr. ), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp. Catalog of Acanthaceae in El Salvador. Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Plant Name. Balick MJ; Nee M; Atha DE, 2000. > 0°C, dry winters), Stem fragments, roots, dumped garden waste, Cultivated as ornamental for its attractive flowers, Seeds, stem fragments, roots, dumped garden waste, GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. Diversity and Distributions, 10(5/6):333-347. Wallingford, UK: CABI, CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. DOI:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00094.x. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. It is native to India and Southern Asia but widespread in the tropics including Florida Hawaii, Australia, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Caribbean and Indian Ocean islands, southern Africa and Central America. Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. The fruit is an almost-rounded (i.e. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. Diversity and Distributions. Urban listed this species as “spontaneous” for the islands of Cuba, Jamaica, St. Thomas, St. Croix, Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Vincent, Barbados and Trinidad in his Symbolae Antillanae. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. 80 pp. climbing habit (Photo: Forest and Kim Starr, USGS), white flower with five spreading petal lobes (Photo: Chris Gardiner), tubular flower from side-on with a pair of leafy bracts at the base (Photo: Sheldon Navie), close-up of flower (Photo: Forest and Kim Starr, USGS), immature fruit with a round base and elongated beak (Photo: Sheldon Navie), close-up of immature fruit with small persistent sepals (Photo: Sheldon Navie), close-up of seeds (Photo: Tracey Slotta at USDA PLANTS Database), angel wings, angelwings, fragrant thunbergia, sweet clock vine, sweet clock-vine, sweet clockvine, thunbergia, white clockvine, white lady, white thunbergia, whitelady. Invasive weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. axils). Names of Thunbergia Grandiflora in various languages of the world are also given. [Proceedings of the California Academy of Science], 61 289-377. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). In Jamaica and Puerto Rico, this species has been recorded flowering and fruiting throughout the year (Adams, 1972; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). Uses, Benefits, Cures, Side Effects, Nutrients in Thunbergia Grandiflora. Daniel TF, 2010. Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia:939 pp. These three species can be distinguished by the following vegetative and reproductive characters (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011): Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Volume 2. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. Thunbergia fragrans Name Synonyms Meyenia longiflora Benth. Seeds for sale starting at € 5.40. quadrangular) and somewhat hairy (i.e. Contributions from the University of Michigan Herbarium. 1192 pp. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. ect. While every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this information, DEEDI does not invite reliance upon it, nor accept responsibility for any loss or damage caused by actions based on it. More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/. Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. 1-158. It is commonly grown as an ornamental, being valued especially for its large, violet or white flowers[ Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. Thunbergia fragrans (Chimine) in Talakona forest, AP W IMG 8508.jpg 481 × 600; 136 KB Thunbergia fragrans 01.JPG 3,076 × 1,924; 1.11 MB Thunbergia fragrans 02.JPG 3,648 × 2,600; 1.74 MB http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html, CABI, Undated. Leaves opposite, more or less triangular. It is most commonly found on roadsides, but can spread into forests and scrub. Stems cylindrical, striate, slender, puberulous. Leaf blades (4-12 cm long and 3-5 cm wide) are egg-shaped in outline (i.e. Beautés fatales: Acanthaceae species as invasive alien plants on tropical Indo-Pacific islands. Mauritius and La Réunion) and on several Pacific islands (e.g. Duration: Perennial Growth Habit: Vine Hawaii Native Status: Introduced. sub-entire). Key words: Thunbergia, Distribution, Traditional uses, Assam INTRODUCTION Thunbergia named in 1780 by Retzius, in the honours of Carl Peter Thunberg (1743-1828), a Variation in the shape, size, pubescence, and margin form of the leaves is extensive in T. fragrans, and taxa have been recognized based on these characters (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp, Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive Plant Species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. Western Australia: Prohibited - on the prohibited species list and not permitted entry into the state. In: Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos, Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation. corolla lobes). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp. Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, 860 pp. Hawaii, USA: US Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Haleakala Field Station. Wu TL, 2001. Thunbergia fragrans, the whitelady is a perennial climbing twiner in the genus Thunbergia.. Distribution. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, revised edition., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press. The purple flowers have a yellow throat and grow to 1 1/4 inches long and may appear Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). T. fragrans is an herbaceous vine, twining, 2-3 m in length. (Flora de Antioquia.) A vine with dark green, entire leaves and fragrant white flowers, widespread in tropical Asia. Diversity and Distributions, 10(2):113-123. It is a fast-growing vine which has been intentionally introduced as an ornamental in many tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions where it has escaped and naturalized becoming a serious threat for native plant communities (Starr et al., 2003; Meyer and Lavergne, 2004). ovate) or somewhat triangular with arrow-shaped (i.e. Josekutty PC, Wakuk EE, Joseph MJ, 2002. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. pubescent) when young. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. This article is copyrighted by Ital is Vital, 2020. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. (Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay).) Robust vine. Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA, Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA. Stems cylindrical, striate, slender, puberulous. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. A low-growing, slender-stemmed, spreading creeper or climbing vine. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 (2) 171-191. T. fragrans was probably introduced as an ornamental in the Caribbean during the nineteenth century. Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. In: 4. Swarbrick JT, 1997. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 79 pp. It is a long-blooming vine in cultivation. its oppositely arranged leaves (4-10 cm long and 3-5 cm wide) have arrow-shaped bases and slightly lobed to almost entire margins. Wallingford, UK: CABI. Catalog of Guatemalan Acanthaceae: taxonomy, ecology, and conservation. Statistics. ovate) or somewhat elongated (i.e. Thunbergia on its own usually refers to Thunbergia grandiflora, while Thunbergia alata is often known as Black-eyed Susan Vine or just Black-eyed Susan. New York, USA: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 1104 pp. Catalog of Guatemalan Acanthaceae: taxonomy, ecology, and conservation. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Thunbergia fragrans. Smith A C, 1981. Barbados: University of the West Indies. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). Proceedings of the California Academy of Science, 61:289-377. Hancock I R, Henderson C P, 1988. Negative: On Sep 27, 2010, eliasastro from Athens, Greece (Zone 10a) wrote: Very fast growing, it covers everything on it's way and looks weedy. The genus Thunbergia is named after the Swedish botanist and explorer, Carl Peter Thunberg (1743-1822). Flora Chiapas [ed. T. fragrans is easily propagated by seeds, which it produces abundantly in its native range and in the tropical countries of introduction (Meyer and Lavergne, 2004). The generic name honors Carl Peter Thunberg. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/. 209, Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission. 55, 584 pp. In Hawaii, T. fragrans was first collected on Kaua'i in 1916 (Wagner et al. All rights reserved. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. pubescent) when young. The Plant List includes a further 9 scientific plant names of infraspecific rank for the genus Thunbergia.We do not intend The Plant List to be complete for names of infraspecific rank. Thunbergia fragrans Roxb belong to the family Acanthaceae. these flowers have a narrow tube and have five broad petal lobes. Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. Thunbergia grandiflora adalah tanaman merambat hijau abadi dari famili Acanthaceae. Daniel TF, 2010. USDA-ARS, 2014. Villaseñor JL; Espinosa-Garcia FJ, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. 79 pp. Meyer J Y, Lavergne C, 2004. the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, Niue, Western Samoa, Vanuata and Tonga). Flora Vitiensis Nova: A new flora of Fiji. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Stem and leaves . They have margins that vary from being slightly lobed, to toothed (i.e. These species can be distinguished by the following differences: Fact sheets are available from Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (DEEDI) service centres and our Customer Service Centre (telephone 13 25 23). The family Acanthaceae includes about 221 genera and 4000 species widespread in both New and Old World Tropics (Scotland and Vollesen, 2000; Stevens, 2012). [English title not available]. Correa A; Galdames MDC; Stapf MNS, 2004. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. crenate), or almost entire (i.e. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser. Description Top of page. The species T. alata, T.fragrans, and T. laurifolia have also been described as invasive species in ... and is commonly planted to cover fences and walls in gardens in warm climates. Teas and medicinal 1), 22-96. These stems bear pairs of oppositely arranged leaves that have stalks (i.e. Considering that T. fragrans spreads sexually by seeds and vegetatively by cuttings, stem fragments, and roots, the likelihood of invading and colonizing new habitats remains high. lanceolate) in shape. Propagation is from stem cuttings or shoots from the tuberous roots. The slender, green or reddish coloured stems are square in cross-section (i.e. The genus Thunbergia includes about 90 species of ... 2012). The subfamily Thunbergioideae comprise five genera, the largest of which, Thunbergia, contains about 100 species restricted to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Madagascar, Asia, and Australia (McDade et al., 2000; Borg et al., 2008). Tropical ornamentals. it is a human commensal), Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela (New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela). Common names tumbergia-branca in Portuguese vit thunbergia in Swedish wan hua cao in language. Honiara, Solomon Islands: Dodo Creek Research Station. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report. Smith AC, 1981. ... in their chemical structure may be responsible for their biological activities and hence justifies their nutritive and medicinal uses Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Beautés fatales: Acanthaceae species as invasive alien plants on tropical Indo-Pacific islands. In the West Indies, this species grows as a weed in disturbed areas and along forest edges (Adams, 1972; Broome et al., 2007; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). Brickell C; Zuk JD, 1997. Flora Chiapas, [ed. Catalog of Acanthaceae in El Salvador. 10 (5/6), 333-347. San Francisco, USA: California Academy of Sciences, 1-158. peduncles) emanating from the leaf forks (i.e. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx, Villaseñor J L, Espinosa-Garcia F J, 2004. There are no pictures available for this datasheet, Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, 2011, Flora of China Editorial Committee (2014), Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (2011), Debris and waste associated with human activities, http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm, http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html, http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2, http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list, http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm, http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf, http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/niue_report_20041217.pdf, http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/pohreports/thunbergia_fragrans.pdf, http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/, https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx, https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx, http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Thunbergia_fragrans.htm, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, Atlántida, Comayugua, Cortes, El Paraiso, F. Morazan, Yoro , La Paz, Chiapas, Hidalgo, Morelos, Oaxaca, Pueblas, St Luis Potosi, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatan, Original citation: Idarraga-Piedrahita et al. Tumbuhan ini adalah tumbuhan asli China, India, Nepal, Indochina, dan Burma, serta dinaturalisasi secara luas di berbagai tempat lain. It is most often grown on trellises and fences, hanging baskets, and as a ground cover in gardens (Wagner et al., 1999; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PIER, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014). When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Hokche O; Berry PE; Huber O, 2008. Small infestations should be removed manually. Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Fragrant thunbergia (Thunbergia fragrans) is regarded as a potentially significant environmental weed in Queensland. It has been widely cultivated as an ornamental and now it is cultivated and naturalized in North, Central and South America, the Caribbean and on many islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean (see distribution table for details; Daniel, 1995, 2001, 2005; Meyer and Lavergne, 2004; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011; PIER, 2014; USDA-NRCS, 2014). T. fragrans also spreads vegetatively by cuttings, stem fragments, and roots (Starr et al., 2003; PIER, 2014). > 0°C, dry summers, Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter, Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. In most cases, this species has been intentionally introduced as an ornamental and it has escaped from cultivation and naturalized in both relatively unaltered and disturbed forests, riversides, roadsides and urban bushland (Starr et al., 2003; Meyer and Lavergne, 2004; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).